According to the NIH’s National Cancer Institute, head and neck cancers account for approximately 4% of all cancer diagnoses in the United States. In 2025, an estimated 72,680 new head and neck cancer cases were diagnosed, and 16,680 individuals died from these diseases.

Head and neck cancers are a group of malignancies that most often originate in the squamous cells lining the mucosal surfaces of the head and neck, including the mouth, throat, and voice box. These are commonly referred to as head and neck squamous cell carcinomas. Less frequently, cancers in this region may arise in the salivary glands, sinuses, or the muscles and nerves of the head and neck.

These cancers can develop in several distinct anatomical sites, including:

• Oral cavity: the lips, front two-thirds of the tongue, gums, inner cheeks and lips, floor of the mouth and hard palate.
• Pharynx (throat): divided into the nasopharynx, oropharynx and hypopharynx.
• Larynx (voice box): contains the vocal cords and supports speech and airway protection.
• Paranasal sinuses and nasal cavity: air-filled spaces surrounding and within the nose.
• Salivary glands: located in and around the mouth and jaw.

Cancers of the brain, eye, esophagus, thyroid and skin in this region are typically classified separately.

When head and neck squamous cell carcinomas spread, they most often do so locally or to nearby lymph nodes in the neck. In some cases, cancer may be detected in cervical lymph nodes without an identifiable primary tumor—referred to as metastatic squamous cell carcinoma with an unknown (occult) primary.

Various factors can increase or decrease the risk of developing lung cancer. Anything that increases your chance of developing a disease is known as a risk factor, and anything that decreases your chance of developing a disease is known as a protective factor.

The following risk factors may increase the risk of head and neck cancers:

• Alcohol and tobacco use are the two most significant risk factors for head and neck cancers. The combined use of tobacco and alcohol further amplifies risk compared to either exposure alone, and most cancers of the mouth and voice box are linked to these factors.

• Infection with cancer-causing types of human papillomavirus (HPV), especially HPV type 16, is a risk factor for oropharyngeal cancers that involve the tonsils or the base of the tongue. In the United States, HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancers are increasing, while those related to other causes are declining. Approximately three-quarters of these cancers are linked to persistent HPV infection. Although HPV may be present in other head and neck cancers, it is primarily implicated in cancers of the oropharynx.

• Betel quid (paan) use, which is strongly associated with oral cancers.

• Occupational exposures, such as wood dust, asbestos, and certain industrial chemicals.

• Prior radiation exposure to the head and neck, which increases the risk of salivary gland cancers.

• Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, linked to nasopharyngeal and some salivary gland cancers.

• Ancestry, with higher risk of nasopharyngeal cancer observed among individuals of Asian descent, particularly Chinese populations.

• Inherited genetic conditions, such as Fanconi anemia, which can predispose individuals to early-onset cancers.

Risk Reduction and Prevention

Reducing exposure to known risk factors is the most effective way to lower the risk of developing head and neck cancers. Avoiding tobacco in all forms, including cigarettes, cigars and smokeless tobacco, is especially important. For individuals who currently use tobacco, speaking with a healthcare provider about cessation strategies can significantly reduce risk over time.

Limiting alcohol consumption or avoiding it altogether may further decrease risk, particularly when combined with tobacco cessation.

Preventing infection with high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV) is another important step. Vaccination with the HPV vaccine, such as Gardasil 9, can protect against the HPV types most commonly linked to cancers of the oropharynx and other head and neck sites.

Although there is no standard screening test for head and neck cancers, routine dental and medical checkups play an important role in early detection. Dentists, in particular, may identify early changes in the mouth during regular exams. Reporting persistent symptoms, such as sores, lumps or voice changes, to a healthcare provider can also support earlier diagnosis and better outcomes.

Recognizing the Signs and Symptoms

Early detection is critical to improving outcomes. Head and neck cancers may present with a range of symptoms, including a lump in the neck, a sore in the mouth or throat that does not heal, persistent sore throat, difficulty swallowing, or changes in the voice such as hoarseness. While these symptoms are often caused by less serious conditions, persistent or worsening symptoms should be evaluated by a doctor or dentist.

Symptoms can vary depending on the location of the cancer:

• Oral cavity: White or red patches in the mouth; swelling of the jaw; poorly fitting dentures; or unexplained bleeding or pain.

• Pharynx (throat): Pain with swallowing, ongoing throat or neck pain, ear pain or ringing, or hearing changes.

• Larynx (voice box): Hoarseness, difficulty speaking or breathing, or pain when swallowing.

• Paranasal sinuses and nasal cavity: Ongoing sinus blockage, frequent infections that do not improve with treatment, nosebleeds, headaches, eye-related symptoms, or dental discomfort.

• Salivary glands: Swelling near the jaw or under the chin, facial weakness or numbness, or persistent pain in the face, chin, or neck.